Modern historians tend to see Catherine’s role more soberly. She probably hoped to eliminate a handful of Protestant leaders to avert a wider war, not unleash mass slaughter. The violence quickly spiraled beyond her control, fueled by deep-seated sectarian hatreds. Throughout her rule, Cath

Catherine’s regency coincided with the eruption of the French Wars of Religion, as Protestant Huguenots and Catholic factions plunged the country into chaos. Catherine’s overriding goal was preserving the throne for her sons and maintaining the fragile unity of France. She initially p

After a decade of anxious waiting, Catherine’s situation improved dramatically. Starting in 1544, she bore ten children in quick succession, securing the Valois succession. Among these were three sons who would each become king of France: Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III. Catherine&rsq

Catherine’s early years were shaped by political upheaval in Florence. In 1527, republican forces hostile to Medici rule seized the city. Catherine, then only 8, was taken hostage. For three harrowing years, she was moved between convents and even threatened with being paraded on city walls as